1． 识记：词的定义 2． 声音与意义
识记：声音与意义的关系 3． 声音与拼写
识记：读音与拼写不一致的原因 4． 词汇
识记词汇的含义 5． 词汇的分类
识记：词汇的分类原则；基本词汇的特点；四类外来语词的特点。 领会：基本词汇及本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性 What is word ? 词具有哪些特点？
词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language; 2) A sound unity or a given sound ; 3) a unit of meaning;
4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. 以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释 词的分类（classification of a word）
词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？ 1) simple words 2) complex words 单音节词例子：
e.g. Man and fine are simple 多音节词例子：
e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail
management 可以次划分为manage 和 -ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortune blackmail 次划分为black 和 mail
What is the relationship between sound and meaning?
1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat 2)The relationship between them is conventional.
3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. What is relationship between sound and form?
1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language. 2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English
3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.
What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?
1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.
2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.
3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.
4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.
要记住以上四句话中的关键词： 1) influenced by Romans 2) Pronunciation changed 3) early scribes 4) borrowing
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？ e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)
外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。 What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. Classification of Words (本课的一个重点)
What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria :
1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin By use of frequency 可划分为：
1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary
By notion 可划分为：1）Content word 2) Functional word
Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称)
Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. ( Functional words 的别称)
Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability
According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you What are the characteristics of basic word stock? 1) All national character 2) Stability 3) Productivity 4) Polysemy 5) Collocability
要把握住‘All national character’的词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通的词稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？ e.g. man, woman , fire, water … e.g. machine, video, telephone … e.g. bow, chariot , knight
Stability is relative, not absolute.
根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic
vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？ 1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra 2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader
5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood) 6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)
7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )
beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content words or functional words ? Answer : Content words What is native words?
Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words.
(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know as Anglo-Saxon words.
(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language
什么叫borrowed words? Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.
(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary
(3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed. 什么叫Denizens?
Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L).
‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L), shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F). 什么叫Translation-loans ?
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ‘ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch) 什么叫Semantic-loans ?
words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ’joy’ and ‘music ’, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.
6．英语词汇的形成与发展 1) 印欧语系的谱系关系
a) 识记：印欧语系的主要分支以及分支的主要现代语言。 2) 英语词汇发展的历史回顾
a) 识记：英语词汇发展的三个历史阶段：古英语词汇、中古英语词汇和现
代英语词汇及其特点。
3) 当代英语词汇发展的状况
a) 识记：当代英语词汇发展的现状。 b) 领会：词汇发展的主要原因。 4) 词汇发展的方式
识记：英语词汇发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新义、借用外来语词。 领会：各种方式在现代英语词汇发展中的地位和作用 The development of the English vocabulary The Indo-European Language Family
It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it 5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar . (重点：语系划分的标准） What is the criteria to divide language families ?
The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar (重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：) Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian. ‘Indo-European’ 两大分支： 1.Eastern set 2.Western set
Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.
In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton
The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages:
Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English. With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English language.
It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English.
Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.
重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England 古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )
古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts) Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？
.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )
如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period ,
modern period.
*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容） Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？
The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period 现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization) The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from (Colonization )
The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容) Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary Three main sources of new words :
1)The rapid development of modern science and technology 2)Social, economic and political changes;
3)The influence of other cultures and language Modes of Vocabulary Development
1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing
2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ） Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer
外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作 . 重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words . 恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色
Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English. 英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？
答案：Modern English period
文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段? 答案：Early Modern English period
在英语发展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？ French, Latin, English in Middle English period
easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？ 答案：Middle English , Dutch
在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这种语言是什么？ 答案：Dutch
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少? 答案：50,000 to 60,000他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue ) 第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary
注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。
Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面? 答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.
文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响? 答案：Greek , Roman culture
某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段? 答案：Modern English
十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry?
答案：Printing
这导致sound and form 出现concord , 出现standardization.
第二章 词的结构和词的构成方式；
词的结构
1．词素 morpheme 识记：词素的概念 2．词素变体
识记：词素变体的概念 3．词素的分类
领会：词素、自由词素、自由词根、黏附词素、黏附词根、词缀、派生词缀、屈折词缀、前缀和后缀之间的相互关系。 4．词根和词干
领会：词根和词干的区别
运用：运用本章所学的知识分析英语词的结构。
The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes) The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)
In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)
Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被称作(zero derivation) 名词解释:
Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes. In other words, the morphemes is ’the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs,
e.g.the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish
简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释) 答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes Free morphemes :
1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.
2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.
3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root 4) free morphemes are free roots.
bound morphemes:
1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.. 2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.
3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes.
Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.
Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.
2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.
root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word
3) a ’root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed’
stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.
2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate.
3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? (答案： a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 请加以理论的分析?
Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence,
Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains
Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .
问题：分析下面一句话: He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village, too heads are better than one. 请从构词角度分析以上的例子, cleverer , better
cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes )
better ( good , well 的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good and well. Language segment
English language grammatically can be segmented into five ranks: a. the sentence b. the clause c. the phrase d. the word
e. the morpheme Morphemes
The minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech.
Fall into two categories:
1) Free morphemes 2) Bound morphemes Free morphemes
A free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech.
Eg:man,earth,wind,car,anger,noon Free morphemes are free roots Bound morphemes
Mostly affixes. Cannot stand by itself. Only exist as: 1) Inflectional affixes 2) Derivational affixes 1.Inflectional affixes
Attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships Number small and stable Easiest to learn 2.Derivational affixes To create new words
1) prefixes (before the word) 2) suffixes (after the word) 词的构成方式 1．词缀法
识记：词缀法、前缀法、后缀法的概念。前后缀的特点。 运用：能用前缀和后缀构词 2．复合法
识记：复合法的概念
领会：复合词与自由词组的区别。 运用：能用该构词方法构词 3．转类法
识记：转类法的概念。短语动词转名词的两种方法。形容词转名词中的完全转类和部分转类。
领会：名词、动词、形容词三类词互相转类后的语义特色 运用：能用该构词方法构词 4．拼缀法
识记：拼缀法的概念以及构成模式
运用：能在阅读中辨认和理解拼缀词。 5．截短法
识记：截短法的概念和构成模式 运用：能辨认和正确使用截短词 6．首字母缩略法
识记：首字母缩略法的概念和构成方法。 领会：两种首字母缩略词的区别。 运用：能辨认和正确运用缩略词。 7．逆生法
识记：逆生法的概念。逆生法的构成方法和文体特色。 运用：能正确运用逆生词。 8． 专用名词普通化
识记：转化为普通词的主要集中专用名词，以及转化的主要方式。
领会：由专用名词转化的普通词的形式与意义之间的联系。它们的修辞特色 问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种? 答案：有七种:
1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending
有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion 问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种? 答案：Extension
问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式? 答案：Narrowing
问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？ 答案：Affixation is also known as derivation
Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation 要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别: a-, non, ir : negative prefixes
de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes ) mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes
super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size
anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- : prefixes of orientation and attitude trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes suffixation :
1. Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns
3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness, 4) Noun and adjective suffixes
注意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词解释. 要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open 简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ?
What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ? 答案：
1) phonetic features 2) Semantic features
3) Grammatical features
最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds
问：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性? 在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性?
动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的? *名词解释:Conversion
Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.
Functional shift = conversion
Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)
Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion 问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？
答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive 简答题: 形容词变动词的三种类别
问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子? 答案： Ifs and buts blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点) 问题：‘blending’ 分为哪四类合成词？ 1. head + tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word + tail
问题: 绝大多数blending 都是什么词性? 答案：nouns
The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.
问题：截短法clipping 分为哪四类？
答案：There are four common types of clipping : 1) Front clipping 2) Back clipping
3) Front and back clipping 4) Phrase clipping
要注意clipping 的例子
有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator 截短之后在i, g 中间加一个d ) , 还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola) 问题：什么是acronymy？
Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:
1) initialisms (不发音) e.g. BBC, VOA, TB
2) acronyms (形成新的发音) e.g. CORE, TEFL `Words from proper names 有四大类:
1. Names of people e.g. bobby : Names of people
2. Names of places e.g. champagne, rugby 3. Names of books e.g. utopia 4. Tradenames e.g. cabal
问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？
e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词, 这种构词被称作) backformation
bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法): 属于Words from proper names 中的Names of people
VJ-day :(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms Pop: (采用哪一种构词法构成的) : clipping Sitcom : blending
FORTRAN : head + head
Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词)
Bath 和 bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion ) 重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift. 问题：Noun + v-ing, 这类词构成的词是什么词 ？ 答案：compounding
问题：Record-breaking , 它是属于复合法中的哪一种？ 答案：Adjectives compounds
问题：请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？ 答案： 有三类 1) n + v-ing 2) n + a 3) n + v-ed
问题：up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？ 答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing )
问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么? 答案：区别也就是复合词的特点: 1) Phonetic features 2) Semantic features 3) Grammatical features
问题：red meat, green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词? 答案 ：Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义） 问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？ 答案：composition
问题：由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？ 答案：compounds
问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？ 答案：分为三类：solid, hyphenated, open solid : blackail , blackmarket hyphenated: brother-in-law, open : green horn , green hand
问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs 答案：有三类：
1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only transitive 3) Only intransitive
问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性? 答案：verb to noun e.g. catch
问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别? 答案：分为两类：
1) full conversion e.g. black , white
2) partial conversion e.g. the rich , the poor
问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？ 答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract
e.g. host : （可加-ess 变成具体名词） friend : (加-ship 可变成抽象名词）
问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false ) 答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出） 问题：Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without any change in sound and spelling. （true or false). 答案： true
外来词分为四类： 1) Denizens
e.g. cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens
e.g. garage , decor 3) Translation -loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans. e.g. dream 判断对错题：
1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther . (true or false ) 答案：true
2． The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and conventional. (true or false ). 答案：true
3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different antonyms .(true or false)
答案：true
4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes. (true or false ) 答题： false
重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. E.g. fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念） 选择题：
Chinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ? . a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language
答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说法)
问题：以下的哪一个词 is not an expression used by American? A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress
答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫tube , 美国人把它叫作subway, underground ) 问题：‘smog’它是‘smoke , fog’ 合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？
A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation 答案： C ) blending
问题：以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form.
e.g. goldmine (compound word ) bike ( shortened form )
process (derived word : cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它是一个前缀) supermarket ( derived word ) language ( simple word ) driver ( derived word )
dorm ( shortened form, clipping ) modernize ( derivation ) blackboard ( compound )
bus ( shortened form ) (omnibus )
What is the difference between content words and functional words, illustrate your point with examples ?
注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。
(复习要考虑的题) What is the difference between denotative meaning and connotative meaning?
(论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary?
答题时先答名词解释basic word stock 再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。 (关键答好第一个特点:‘All national character ，它又分为五个特点) Means of word-building
1)affixation 30-40% 2)compounding 28-30% 3)conversion 26% 4)shortening 8-10% 5)blending 1-5%
Affixation Two subclasses:
1) prefixation 2) suffixation 1.Prefixation( 9 groups )
1)negative prefixes: dis-, in-, il, ir, non-, un-
Eg. Disloyal,injustice,illegal,irresistible,non-smoker,unwilling
2)reversative prefixes: de-,dis,un,
Eg. Decompose,disunite,unwrap
3)pejorative prefixes:mal-,mis,pseudo- Eg.maltreat,mistrust,pseudo-friend
4)degree or size:extra-,micro-,mini-,over-,sub-,super-,under-
Eg.extra-strong,microsoft,miniskirt,overweight,subway,superman, underdeveloped
5)orientation and attitude: anti-,contra-,counter-,pro- Eg. anti-government, contraflow, counteract, pro-student,
6)locative: extra-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-
Eg.extraordinary,forehead,inter-city,intra-party,telecommunicate, trans-world
7)time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-
Eg.ex-president,foretell,post-war,pre-prepared,reconsider 8)number:bi-,multi-(poly-),semi-(hemi-),tri-,uni-(mono-)
Eg.bilingual,multi-purpose,polysyllable,semi-naked,hemisphere,tricycle,
uniform,monologue
9)miscellaneous:auto-,pan-,vice-
Eg.automobile,pan-European,vice-chairman 2.Suffixation( 4 groups )
1.Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns
a.Concrete:-eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-let,-ster
Eg.engineer,teenager,hostess,cigarette,booklet,gangster b.Abstract:-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,ism,-ship
Eg.officialdom,slavery,adulthood,terrorism,friend-ship
2) Deverbal nouns
a.Denoting people:-ant,-ee,-ent,-er(or)
Eg.informant,trainee,respondent,dependent b.Denoting action,result,process,state:
-ance,-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,),-nce,-ment,-ing
Eg.attendance,protection,decision,persistence,savings,statement 3)De-adjective nouns:-ity,-ness,
Eg.popularity,largeness 2.Adjective suffixes
1) Denominal suffixes:-ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y
Eg.simple-minded,successful,childish,priceless,nameless,girl-like,friendly,smoky,bloody
2) Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive
Eg.washable,active
3.Adverb suffixes:-ly,-ward(s),-wise
Eg.calmly,naturally,homewards,clockwise 4.Verb suffixes:-ate,-en,-fy,-ify,-ize(-ise)
Eg.originate,darken,heighten,strengthen,solidify,beautify,modernize 词素构词综合练习：
问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping?
A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo 答案：Motel: (blending)
问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words ? 答案：50,000 to 60,000
问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素 分为哪两类？
答案：粘着词素分为：Bound root 和 affixes 选择题或填空：
Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words in the Middle English Period. (Dutch ) A word is a symbol that B .
A ) is used by same community
B) represents something else in the world C) both simple and complex in nature
D) Show different ideas in different sounds
Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and stability, but has limited Productivity
问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗， 以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？ 1) heart and soul ( Adverbial in nature )
2) father - male parent ( conceptual meaning ) 3) City-bred ( noun + v-ed )
4) Lip-reading - lip read (backformation ) 5) headache (compound n + v )
6) antecedent ( 下划线的这一部分是什么： bound morphemes ) 7) preview ( prefix : 前缀) 8) receive ( bound root )
9) called ( inflectional affixes ) 第三章 词的理据；
识记：拟声理据、形态理据、语义理据、词源理据。 领会：词义的理据与“约定俗成”的关系。 第四章 词的语义特征； 1) What is componential analysis? (p318) 2) On what basis are semantic features established? 3) What are the difference between dynamic verbs and stative verbs? (320-321) 4) What are the difference between dynamic adjectives and stative
adjectives?(320-321)
第五章 词义的变化； 1．词义变化的种类
识记：词义的扩大、词义的缩小、词义的升华、词义的降格的基本概念。 领会：四种变化方式在英语词汇发展中的作用。 2．词义变化的原因
领会：词义演变的语言外部原因：历史原因、阶级原因、心理原因。语言内部原因：缩略、借用和类推。
Change of Meaning I. Polysemy
The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as “polesemy”; such a word is “polesemic”. 1. Sources of polysemy
Polesemy can arise in a number of ways. A. Shifts in application
Words have a number of different aspects according to the contexts in which they are used. Some of these aspects are purely ephemeral; others may develop into permanent shades of meaning and, as the gap between them widens, we may eventually come to regard them as different senses of the same term.
Shifts in application are particularly noticeable in the use of adjectives since these are apt
B. Specialization in a social milieu
Polesemy often arises through a kind of verbal shorthand. For a lawyer, “action” will naturally mean “legal action”; for the soldier it will mean a military operation, without any need for a qualifying epithet. In this way the same word may acquire a number of specialized senses, only one of which will be applicable in a given milieu. C. Figurative language
A word can be given one or more figurative senses without losing its original meaning: old and new will live on side by side as long as there is no possibility of confusion between them. Polesemy that is based on metaphors can be exemplified by the following phrases: the bed of a river, the rock of a gun, a saddle in the mountains, a sheet of paper, iron or water, etc. 2. Primary and derivative (derived) meaning
The primary meaning refers to what a word originally meant and the derivative meaning refers to the meaning springing from the original meaning 3. Central meaning and secondary meaning
An important process by which words extend their meaning is called radiation. The primary or central meaning appears at the form of a hub and secondary meanings radiate out from it like the spokes of a wheel. Each of the secondary meanings is independent of all the rest, and may be traced back to the central signification. Take the word “power” for example. Its central meaning is “ability to act”. It may refer to (1) control over one’s subordinates; (2) delegated authority; (3) physical strength; (4) mechanical energy; (5) a device by means of which energy can be applied to mechanical purposes; (6) moral or intellectual force; (7) a person of influence; (8) one of the great nations of the world; (9) a mathematic conception; (10) an army or troop of soldiers; (11) an effective quality of style in writing or oratory; (12) the degree of magnification of a lens, microscope, telescope, etc.
Another process, as opposed to radiation, is called “concatenation”. It means that a word moves gradually away from its original sense as a result of successive semantic changes until, in may cases, there is not a trace of connection
between the sense that is finally developed and the primary sense. A good example is “candidate”. The word derived from the Latin candidates which originally meant “a person dressed in white”, then, “a white-robed seeker for officer”, from the Roman custom of wearing one’s freshest robes when asking the suffrages of the people. In the current use of “candidate”, the idea of “white attire” has completely disappeared, leaving only the sense of “an applicant for office”, which has no obvious connection with the primary meaning of the word. II. Types of Semantic Changes
There are a variety of semantic changes in the English language, illustrated one by one in the following.
1. Generalization or Extension
The word “generalization, or extension” refers to the stretching of meaning. Most words begin as specific names for things. With the passage of time, this precise denotation is lost and the word’s meaning is extended, generalized, or blurred.
More examples
Bribery, morsel of bread given to beggars (obsolete)
Economy, management of a household or state, public revenue Orientation Slogan, cry used by Scottish Highland and Irish clans in battle or as an assembly signal place, a broad street 2. Specialization “Specialization” means “shrinking of meaning”. When a word is equally applicable to a number of different objects which resemble each other in some respects, or to a vague or general category of ideas, it may at any moment become specialized by being used to name one of those objects or to express one of those ideas. 1) The old meaning of “artillery” was “munitions of war”. Today it means “mounted guns”. 2) “Pill” which once meant a general category of small medicinal ball has now narrowed to the more specific meaning of birth control pill. 3) “Fowl” originally meant “any kind of bird”. Later, it came to mean only large edible birds, and now when the word is used alone it is further restricted to domestic birds such as the hen. 4) “ Fission”, if standing alone, would now probably be taken by most readers to refer not to any kind of “splitting”, but to nuclear fission. 5) “Nucleus” would similarly be taken as the nucleus of an atom, though before Hiroshima it was specialized for most readers as a “cell nucleus”. 6) “Radiation” is now likely to make us think not of the “general process of spreading out of light or heat rays, wheel-like, from a center”, but of “the diffusion of radioactive particles or emanations following an atomic bomb explosion”. 3. Elevation or Amelioration When the meaning narrows toward a more favorable meaning, it is called elevation or amelioration. 1) “naughty” once meant wicked and depraved. Today, it means only mild mischief. 2) “mischief” itself once meant wicked behavior. Today it can apply to a merely naughty child. 3) At one time, “shrewd” meant depraved or wicked. Today, it is somewhat complimentary. Some words that originally implied only neutral judgment, then gradually narrowed in the direction of “favorable”. 1) “Praise” once meant “set a value on something good or bad” and now applies to something good. 2) “Fame” which originally meant “report” now means “good reputation”. 3) “Success” which once meant “result, outcome” now refers to a favorable or satisfactory outcome or result. A process similar to this has occurred with words that refer to various occupations and social roles that have elevated through history: 1) “knight” originally named only a boy or youth; 2) “constable”, the head groom; 3) “queen”, a woman; 4) “ minister”, a servant; 5) “marshal”, a stable servant; 6) “lady”, a kneader of bread; 7) “ steward”, possibly overseer of the sky; 8) “ambassador”, a messenger. 4. Degeneration When the meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning it is called degeneration or pejorative change. Some words once respectable may become less so and others once neutral in meaning may acquire a pejorative connotation. A “villain was originally a man who worked on a farm or villa. Such a person was naturally felt by his social superiors to have a low sense of morality, and the word “villain”, at first a term implying no contempt., came to be a term of reproach. The process of pejorative change has occurred with other words churl (once a man ) boor （粗野的人）(once a farmer) knave (once a boy) hussy （贱妇）(once a housewife) stink (once any odor) smirk（傻笑） (once a smile) retaliate (once repay for anything) predicament (once any situation) immoral (once not customary) lust (once desire in general). 5. The use of the abstract for the concrete or vice versa The striking use of the abstract for the concrete is the application of the name of a quality to a person. It is the reverse of personification. In personification, a quality is spoken of as a person whereas in the use of the abstract for the concrete a person is designated as if he were the quality incarnate, as in “She is virtue itself.” The Elizabethan poets applied abstract nouns to persons. Thus Shakespeare uses “admiration” for “wonderful creature” (“Bring in the admiration”). Polyxenes addresses Peradita as “enchantment”, meaning that she has bewitched his son by her beauty. Juliet goes so far in her excitement as to call her old nurse “ancient damnation”. Though none of these phrases would occur in contemporary English, we can still see many cases of the application of abstract nouns to persons. A person of whom his relations are proud is the pride of his family; a man may be described as an “inspiration” or one’s “ruin” or “salvation”. 1) The Great Wall of China is the admiration of the world. 2) Dante was the inspiration for my book on Italy. 3) Government loans have been the salvation of several shaky business companies. The name of a quality can also be applied to an object exhibiting it. “Falsehood” means falsity in the abstract and also a particular falsehood, a lie; a thing whose beauty we admire is called a beauty a beauty can also be used to refer to a beautiful woman. Different from the above process of semantic change is the use of the concrete for the abstract. The actor succeeded in bringing out the devil and the man in the artist. There is a mixture of the tiger and the man in the character of a Frenchman. 6. Common words from proper names The use of a proper noun to convey a general idea is known as antonomasia（换称）. In English, some proper nouns suggest allusions or anecdotes which it tickles our fancy to remember. They may come from history or from literature differently. “Solon（贤人）” from the Athenian statesman and lawgiver “s sage”, often used jocosely of a person who has habitual air of sagacity Judas, the disciple who betrayed Jesus, “a traitor” or in particular, “ a false friend”; Sherlock, a character in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice, “a merciless usurer”, or in general, “ a money-grabbler”; Braggadocio from a character in Spencer’s Faerie Queene, “ a cowardly booster”. Some words derived from proper names have changed in the form in the course of time. Many technical terms coined in honor of an inventor or discoverer have changed into common nouns volt from A. Volt, Italian physicist; watt from James Watt, Scottish inventor; ampere from A. M. Ampere, French physicist; ohm from G. S. Ohm, German electrician. Names of places are sometimes scarcely recognizable in the common nouns derived from them; currant （葡萄干）from Corinth; damask （缎子）from Damascus; Millinery（女帽） from Milan, Italy; sherry from Jerez（赫雷兹）, Spain; bedlam （疯人院）from Hospital of St. Mary of Bethlehem, London. 7. Transference of meaning Almost every conception has two aspects: (1) that of the person or thing that possesses or exercises it; (2) that of the person or thing that is affected by it. This difference between the active agent and the effect produced, between the cause and that which it causes, between the subjective and the objective, is very great. The process by which the difference has occurred in the development of a language is called transference of meaning. Here we will confine ourselves to the distinction between the subjective and the objective. 第六章 词的语义分类； 1．多义关系 识记：多义关系的概念。两种研究方法。 领会：词义的辐射型发展和连锁型发展。 2．同形同音异义关系 识记：完全同形同音词、同形词和同音词的定义和来源。 领会：同形同音异义词与多仪词的区别。同形同音异义词的修辞特色。 3．同义关系 识记：同义词的定义、来源和类别。 运用：能对同义词辨析和正确使用。 4． 反意关系 识记：矛盾反义词、对立反义词和关系反义词的概念。 领会：三类反义词的特点和区别。 运用：利用反义词释义、解释词语、提高修辞效果。 5．上下义关系 识记：上义词和下义词的概念和相互关系。 运用：利用上下义词释义、解释词语、提高修辞效果。 6．语义场 识记：语义场的概念。 领会：语义场的作用 1) On what basis does semantic classification of words are classified? 2) What does hyponymy refer to? 3) What are co-hyponyms? 4) What is the semantic field? Illustrate with example. 5) What is synonymy? What are its resources? 6) How do the semantic and the semantically synonymous field differ? 7) What is antonymy? 8) On the basis of semantic contrast, how many antonyms are classified? Define each with examples. 9) What does homonymy mean? How many types ? illustrate each. What are the main sources of homonymy? 第七章 词的联想与搭配； Association and Collocation Ⅰ. Association Words association can be handled in terms of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between words. F. R. Palmer uses two simple sentences to illustrate the two terms: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The cat is on the mat. The dog is on the mat. If we consider \"The cat is on the mat\" we could talk of a syntagmatic relation between cat and mat; but if we compare this with \"The dog is on the mat\" we have a paradigmatic relation between cat and dog. Herbert H. Clark proposes four paradigmatic rules and two syntagmatic rules to account for word associations. 1. Paradigmatic rules A. The minimal-contrast rule B. The feature-deletion and -addition rules C. The marking rule D. The category-preservation rule 2. Syntagmatic rules A. The selectional feature realization rule B. The idiom-completion rule Ⅱ. Collocation 1. Co-occurrence Co-occurrence refers to the permitted syntagmatic combination of words. Firth uses a less technical expression for this term - \"the mutual expectancy of words\". He once argued that \"You shall know a word by the company it keeps.\" His familiar example was that of ass which occurred in You silly ass, Don't be such an ass and with a limited set of adjectives such as silly, obstinate, stupid, awful and egregious (occasionally). This keeping company Firth called collocation. 2. Selectional restrictions Chomsky handles collocation within the framework of the grammar (to be more exact, \"syntax\"). Chomsky is concerned with a grammar that, given a set of appropriate rules, will generate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language. What is relevant to semantics is that he is concerned with restrictions on the co-occurrence of items within a sentence. 2. Ⅲ. Application of association and collocation in the specific settings 1. Association and collocation of synonymous structures A. Synonymous structures formed by words in different distribution B. Synonymous structures based on shifts in function C. Synonymous structures formed by lexical groups and sentences 2. Association and collocation of antonymous structures A. Antonymous structures opposite in meaning but identical in structure B. Antonymous structures opposite in meaning and different in structure 3. Association and collocation centering on a given subject A. Nouns and verbs B. Nouns and adjectives C. Verbs and adverbs 第八章 英语习语； 1． 英语习语的特点 识记：英语习语的定义。 领会：语义的整体性，结构的稳定性。 2． 英语习语的分类 识记：五种习语及其结构。 3． 使用英语习语应该注意的问题 识记：习语的文体色彩；修辞色彩，包括各种修辞格；习语的变异形式。 运用：注意收集习语，并分析它们的构成形式、语法功能和修辞特色。 Characteristics of English idioms: semantic unity and structural stability. How do idioms differ from free phrases? Classifications of idioms: 1) verbal idioms(6); 2) nominal idioms(5); 3) adjectival idioms(3); 4) adverbial idioms(3); 5) proverbs p159-178 180-181 第九章 美国英语； 英式英语与美式英语 领会：两种英语变体的区别 1) characteristics of American English A) conservativeness and creativeness in usage B) verbosity abd brevity of expression C) the heterogeneous nature of the American vocabulary 2) Differences between BrE and A.E A) Differences in pronunciation, B) Differences in spelling, C) Differences in vocabulary, D) Differences in grammar 第十章 词的使用和理解； 第十一章 词汇衔接； 第十二章 词汇衔接和语篇连贯。 1． 语境的种类 识记：非语言语境和两种语言语境 领会：语境对词义的影响。 2． 语境的作用 领会：语境如何消除歧异、限定所指和提供线索。 运用：利用语境知识猜测词义。 附加内容： 英语词典 1．词典的种类 识记：单语词典与双语词典、语文词典与百科词典、大型词典、案头词典和袖珍词典，专用词典的个的特点和主要区别。 2．使用词典应注意的问题 识记：选用词典应注意的问题：内容、特点、出版日期。 运用：选用恰当的词典解决学习和工作中遇到的实际语言问题。 3．三本常用词典的特色 运用：能系统地介绍三本词典：收词范围、语言特色、语法标注、理据说明等。 因篇幅问题不能全部显示，请点此查看更多更全内容